Austral is a systems programming language engineered to prioritize security, readability, and long-term maintainability. Its primary innovation is the integration of a linear type system, which enables manual memory management and resource lifecycle enforcement without the overhead of a garbage collector or the complexity of traditional static analysis heuristics.
The language is governed by the principle of "fits-in-head simplicity," defined by low Kolmogorov complexity. It deliberately rejects features that introduce "surprise" control flow, such as exception handling, in favor of a "scuttle the ship" approach to contract violations: terminating the program immediately to prevent security vulnerabilities.
Austral facilitates Capability-Based Security, requiring code to possess unforgeable linear tokens to access sensitive resources like the filesystem or network. This architecture aims to mitigate supply chain attacks by making a library's permissions explicit in its function signatures.
Core Design Philosophy
The development of Austral is guided by several "strict" and often contrarian design goals:
- Simplicity: The language must be small enough to be understood entirely by a single person. Simplicity is not "friendliness" but the ability for a system to be described briefly.
- Restraint: Austral assumes human error is inescapable. It favors mechanical aids (type systems, formal verification, static assertions) over human processes like code review.
- Strictness: Described as "crystalline and brittle," Austral is designed so that minor changes break the build rather than introducing silent bugs.
- Maintainability: The goal is for code written today to compile and run decades into the future by prioritizing stability and saying "no" to trendy features.
- Readability over Writability: Optimizing for the reader by using English keywords rather than inscrutable symbols (e.g., and instead of &&).
The Linear Type System
The cornerstone of Austral’s safety model is its linear type system, which ensures resources (memory, file handles, database connections) are used exactly once.
The Two Universes
Austral divides all types into two universes:
- Free: Types that can be copied or discarded any number of times (e.g., integers, booleans).
- Linear: Types that represent restricted resources. They must be consumed exactly once.
The Use-Once Rule
A variable of a linear type cannot be used zero times (a leak) or more than once (double-free/use-after-free).
- Conditionals: A linear variable defined outside an if statement must be consumed in every branch or none at all.
- Loops: Linear variables defined outside a loop cannot be used inside the loop body, as they would be consumed multiple times across iterations.
Safety Benefits
By enforcing the resource lifecycle at the type level, Austral prevents:
- Memory Leaks: Forgetting to deallocate memory.
- Use-After-Free: Accessing a pointer after it has been freed.
- Double-Free: Deallocating the same pointer twice.
- Resource Mismanagement: Forgetting to close sockets or database handles.
The Trust Boundary
Internal implementations of linear types often use "unsafe" non-linear code (like C FFI) wrapped in a linear interface. This "Trust Boundary" ensures that while the interior may be complex, the exterior interface is mathematically guaranteed to be used correctly by clients.
Syntax and Module System
Austral adopts a statement-oriented syntax inspired by the Wirth tradition (Algol, Pascal, Ada) rather than the C tradition.
Syntactic Features
- Keyword Delimiters: Constructs end with specific keywords like end if or end for, making deeply nested code easier to navigate without IDE support.
- Statement Orientation: Forces code to be structurally simple, discouraging "clever" or obfuscated expression-heavy code.
- Redundancy: Semicolons are used not just as terminators but to provide redundancy that aids in parser error recovery.
Modularity
Modules are the fundamental unit of organization, strictly split into:
- Module Interface: Contains public declarations (opaque constants, record/union definitions, function signatures).
- Module Body: Contains private implementation details and constant definitions.
- Parallel Implementation: A module can be type-checked against the interface of its dependencies before those dependencies are even implemented.
Error Handling: The "Scuttle the Ship" Model
Austral rejects traditional exception handling (REOE - Raise Exception on Error) in favor of Terminate Program on Error (TPOE) for contract violations.
Critique of Exception Handling
The specification identifies 15 distinct problems with traditional exceptions, including:
- Complexity: Exceptions introduce "surprise control flow" at every program point.
- Incompatibility: Linear types cannot easily coexist with stack unwinding, as throwing an exception would leak all linear variables currently in scope.
- The Double-Throw Problem: If a destructor throws while the stack is already unwinding, most systems must abort anyway.
- Invisible Costs: Destructor calls are hidden function calls that increase binary size and complicate performance analysis.
Categorization of Failures
Category Handling Strategy
Physical/Machine Failure Nothing can be done; terminate.
Contract Violations Terminate program immediately (TPOE).
Memory Allocation Failure Return Option or Result types.
Expected Failure Conditions Use standard control flow with Option and Either types.
Capability-Based Security
To combat supply chain attacks, Austral utilizes linear types to implement a capability-based security model.
- The Concept: A capability is an unforgeable proof of authority to perform an action.
- Linear Enforcement: Because capabilities are linear values, they cannot be duplicated or acquired "out of thin air."
- The Root Capability: The entry point of an Austral program receives a RootCapability. All other restricted actions (accessing the filesystem, network, or clock) must be derived from this root or its children.
- FFI and Unsafe Modules: Guarantees are maintained by marking modules that use the FFI as Unsafe_Module. This allows developers to audit a small, explicit list of modules that bridge the gap between the capability-secure Austral code and the permissionless outside world.
Technical Specifications
Built-In Types
Name Description Universe
Unit Returns no value (constant: nil). Free
Bool Logical operators (true, false). Free
Nat8-64 Unsigned integers of various widths. Free
Int8-64 Signed integers of various widths. Free
Reference Read-only reference bound to a region. Free
FixedArray Arrays with size fixed at runtime. Free
RootCapability The top-level permission token. Linear
Type Classes and Instances
Austral implements a form of ad-hoc polymorphism via Type Classes (similar to Haskell).
- Instance Uniqueness: Instances must be globally unique to prevent ambiguity.
- Coherence Rules: You can only define an instance if either the typeclass or the type is local to the module.
C Interface Mapping
Austral provides direct mapping to C types for FFI: | C Type | Austral Equivalent | | :--- | :--- | | unsigned char | Bool or Nat8 | | unsigned int | Nat32 | | double | Float64 | | t* | Address[t] |
Memory Management Primitives (Austral.Memory)
- allocate[T]: Allocates memory for a single value.
- load[T]: Dereferences a pointer.
- store[T]: Writes a value to a pointer location.
- deallocate[T]: Explicitly frees memory, consuming the linear pointer.
Conclusion
Austral is designed for "pyramid building"—static, imposing, and rigid structures. By sacrificing programmer ergonomics (such as terseness and exceptions) for simplicity and correctness, it provides a unique environment for systems where security and long-term stability are the highest priorities.
